The visual arts can pose significant risks to the health and safety of artists. This guide provides an overview of some of the most common risks associated with painting, drawing, photography, ceramics, lithography, and sculpture.
Faculty
Faculty are responsible for ensuring that students attend training and work safely and
Artists
Each student, faculty and staff member is expected to attend training and:
Chemicals, compressed gases, machines and electrical hazards are the most common health and safety risks associated with the visual arts. Please refer to these sections of the EHS website for more information about:
EHS offers visual arts safety training at the beginning of each semester for Visual Arts students. This training is also available upon request for any member of the University community.
The health hazards associated with painting and drawing have been known since Ramazzini described such illnesses in 1713. Working safely can involve changes in how you select your art materials and how you handle them.
NOTE: For turpentine and thinners, use the pre-labeled mason jars supplied by Visual Arts. Keep containers sealed or covered with foil when not in use. Do not use food or beverage containers.
Painters use pigments in oil paints, acrylics, watercolor paints, gouache, encaustic, poster paints, casein paints and tempera. Sometimes commercial paints such as oil, enamel, epoxy paints and automobile paints are used.
Paints are pigments mixed with a vehicle or binder. Both inorganic and organic pigments are used as colorants. Dry pigments are especially hazardous because they are easily inhaled and ingested. They are used in encaustic, paper-marbleizing and in the fabrication of paint products, and will be discussed more thoroughly in the section below on pastels.
Most paints used in Visual Arts do not contain metal pigments and are considered non-toxic. These are most easily identified by the product name. If the paint is described as hue, such as "chromium yellow hue", there is no (or too little to be concerned about) toxic metal contained in the product.
Water-based paints include water color, acrylic, gouache, tempera and casein. Water is used for thinning and cleanup.
Hazards
- See section above for pigment hazards.
- Acrylic paints contain a small amount of ammonia. Some sensitive people may experience eye, nose and throat irritation from the ammonia. Acrylics and some gouaches contain a very small amount of formaldehyde as a preservative. Only people already sensitized to formaldehyde would experience allergic reactions from the trace amount of formaldehyde found in acrylics. The amounts can vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.
- Casein paints use the protein casein as a binder. While soluble forms are available, casein can be dissolved in ammonium hydroxide which is moderately irritating by skin contact and highly irritating by eye contact, ingestion, and inhalation.
- All water-based paints contain a preservative to prevent mold or bacterial growth. Sometimes artists add preservatives when they make their own paints. Although present in small amounts, certain preservatives may cause allergic reactions in some people.
Precautions
- See section above for precautions when mixing dry pigments.
- If you add your own preservative, avoid using sodium fluoride, phenol or mercury compounds. For tempera, a small amount of pine oil works for short periods of time.
- If you experience eye, nose or throat irritation while using acrylics, opening a window is usually sufficient; if not try a window exhaust fan.
- If you mix casein paints using ammonium hydroxide, you will need a window exhaust fan to provide ventilation.
- Wear gloves, goggles and protective apron when handling ammonia. An eyewash fountain should be available when handling ammonia.
Oil paints, encaustic and egg tempera use linseed oil, wax and egg respectively as vehicles, although solvents are often used as a thinner and for cleanup. Turpentine and mineral spirits (paint thinner), for example, are used in oil painting mediums, for thinning, and for cleaning brushes. Alkyd paints use solvents as their vehicle. In addition many commercial paints used by artists also contain solvents.
Hazards
- See section above for pigment hazards.
- All solvents can cause defatting of the skin and dermatitis from prolonged or repeated exposure. Turpentine can also cause skin allergies and be absorbed through the skin.
- Acute inhalation of high concentrations of mineral spirits, turpentine vapors, and other solvents can cause narcosis, which can include symptoms of dizziness, headaches, drowsiness, nausea, fatigue, loss of coordination, coma, as well as respiratory irritation.
- Chronic inhalation of large amounts of solvents could result in decreased coordination, behavioral changes and brain damage. Chronic inhalation of turpentine can cause kidney damage and respiratory irritation and allergies. Odorless mineral spirits and turpenoid, in which the aromatic hydrocarbons have been removed, are less hazardous.
- Ingestion of either turpentine or mineral spirits can be fatal. In the case of mineral spirits, this is usually due to chemical pneumonia caused by aspiration (breathing in) of the mineral spirits into the lungs after vomiting.
- Natural resins (copal, damar, rosin, Japanese Lacquer) may cause skin irritation or allergies. Rosin dust can cause asthma.
- Encaustic involves suspending pigments in molten wax. If the wax is overheated, flammable wax vapors and wax decomposition fumes are produced, which are strong respiratory irritants.
- Epoxy paints consist of an epoxy resin component containing the pigment, and a hardener component. The epoxy resin may contain diglycidyl ethers which are irritants, may cause bone marrow damage, and are suspect carcinogens. Epoxy hardeners may cause skin and respiratory allergies and irritation.
Precautions
- Whenever possible replace turpentine or ordinary mineral spirits with the less toxic odorless mineral spirits. Mineral spirits is also less flammable than turpentine, since its flashpoint is over 100 F (38 C), while turpentine has a flashpoint of 95 F, (35 C).
- Apply the same health and safety considerations for the use of "citrus" or "pine" solvents. These have been found to be quite irritating to the skin and eyes.
- If possible, artists should set up their easel about 3 feet from a window that has a fan exhausting at work level and pulling the solvent vapors away from your face.
- Techniques such as turpentine washes will require a lot of ventilation because they result in the evaporation of large amounts of solvents in a short period of time. Acrylic paint can be substituted for underpainting.
- Ventilation only needs to be provided while the solvent is evaporating from the canvas, not during the time while the oil paint film is drying (oxidizing).
- Wear neoprene gloves while cleaning brushes with mineral spirits or turpentine.
- Used solvent can be reclaimed by allowing the paint to settle and then pouring off the clear solvent.
- Paint can be removed from your hands with baby oil, and then soap and water.
- Wax should be only heated to the minimum temperature needed for proper flow of the paint. Do not heat with open flame or hot plate with exposed element. During pregnancy and nursing, switch to water-based paints to avoid exposure to solvents.
Artists use many products in spray form, including fixatives, retouching sprays, paint sprays, varnishes, and adhesive sprays. Airbrush, aerosol spray can and spray guns are used.
Hazards
- Spray mists are particularly hazardous because they are easily inhaled. If the paint being sprayed contains solvents, then you can be inhaling liquid droplets of the solvents. In addition the pigments are also easily inhaled, creating a much more dangerous situation than applying paint by brush.
- Aerosol spray paints have an additional hazard besides pigments and solvents. They contain propellants, usually isobutanes and propane, which are extremely flammable and have been the cause of many fires. Other aerosol spray products such as retouching sprays, spray varnishes, etc. also contain solvents, propellants and particulates being sprayed.
- Airbrushing produces a fine mist which is a serious inhalation hazard because artists work so close to their art work. Airbrushing solvent-containing paints is especially dangerous.
- Spray guns are less common in art painting but usually involve spraying much larger quantities of paint than either spray cans or airbrush. Spraying solvent-based paints is a serious fire hazard.
Precautions
- See section above for precautions with pigments.
- Try to brush items rather than spraying if possible.
- Use water-based airbrushing paints and inks rather than solvent-based paints.
- Use spray cans or an airbrush in a spray booth if possible.
- If ventilation is not adequate, then respiratory protection is necessary while air brushing or spraying. Contact EHS for selection and fit-testing.
- Never try to spray paint by blowing air from your mouth through a tube. This can lead to accidental ingestion of the paint.
This includes dust-creating media such as charcoal and pastels which are often fixed with aerosol spray fixatives, and media such as crayons and oil pastels which do not create dust.
Hazards
- Pencils are made with graphite, rather than lead and are not considered a hazard. Colored pencils have pigments added to the graphite, but the amounts are small so that there is no significant risk of exposure. Over 10 years ago, a significant hazard in pencils was from lead chromate paint on the exterior of yellow pencils. However this has since been eliminated as a risk.
- Charcoal is usually made from willow or vine sticks, where wood cellulose has been heated without moisture to create the black color. Compressed charcoal sticks use various resins in a binder to create the color. Although charcoal is just considered a nuisance dust, inhalation of large amounts of charcoal dust can create chronic lung problems through a mechanical irritation and clogging effect. A major source of charcoal inhalation is from the habit of blowing excess charcoal dust off the drawing.
- Colored chalks are also considered nuisance dusts. Some chalks are dustier than others. Individuals who have asthma sometimes have problems with dusty chalks, but this is a nonspecific dust reaction, not a toxic reaction.
- Pastel sticks and pencils consist of pigments bound into solid form by a resin. Inhalation of pastel dusts is the major hazard. Some pastels are dustier than others. Pastels can contain toxic pigments such as chrome yellow (lead chromate) which can cause lung cancer, and cadmium pigments (which can cause kidney and lung damage and are suspect human carcinogens). Blowing excess pastel dust off the drawing is one major source of inhalation of pastel pigments. Pastel artists have often complained of blowing their nose different colors for days after using pastels, a clear indication of inhalation.
- Crayons and oil pastels do not present an inhalation hazard, and thus are much safer than pastels. Some oil pastels can contain toxic pigments, but this is only a hazard by accidental ingestion.
- Both permanent and workable spray fixatives used to fix drawings contain toxic solvents. There is high exposure by inhalation to these solvents because the products are sprayed in the air, often right on a desk or easel. In addition you can be inhaling the plastic particulates that comprise the fixative itself.
- Never try to spray fixative by blowing air from your mouth through a tube. This can lead to accidental ingestion of the fixative.
Precautions
- Use the least dusty types of pastels, chalks, etc. Asthmatics in particular might want to switch to oil pastels or similar non-dusty media.
- Spray fixatives should be used with a spray booth that exhausts to the outside. If use of spray fixatives is occasional, you can use them outdoors with a NIOSH-approved respirator equipped with organic vapor cartridges and dust and mists filter for protection against inhalation of solvent vapors and particulates. An exhaust fan is also needed to remove organic vapors and particulates.
- Don't blow off excess pastel or charcoal dust with your mouth. Instead tap off the built up dust so it falls to the floor (or paper on floor).
- Wet-mop and wet-wipe all surfaces clean of dusts.
- If inhalation of dusts is a problem, a respirator may be appropriate. Contact EHS for selection and fit-testing.
This includes both water-based and solvent-based pen and ink and felt tip markers. Hazards of dry erase or white board markers can be considered here, although they are more used in teaching or commercial art.
Ceramic art and pottery has a wide variety of hazards. The specific hazards and precautions can be divided into four areas:
Clays are minerals composed of hydrated aluminum silicates, often containing large amounts of crystalline silica. Other impurities may include organic matter or sulfur compounds. Sometimes, grog (ground firebrick), sand, talc, vermiculite, perlite, and small amounts of minerals such as barium carbonate and metal oxides, are added to modify clay properties. Clays can be worked by hand or on the potter's wheel, or cast in a clay slurry into molds.
Clay is made by mixing dry clay with water in clay mixer. Clay slip is made by adding talcs which themselves can be contaminated with fibrous asbestos or asbestos-like materials. Geographical sources of talcs are relevant, for example, New York State talcs are notoriously asbestos-contaminated, while Vermont talcs are not. Pfizer has some fiber-free talcs.
Glazes used to color or finish clay pieces are a mixture of silica, fluxes and colorants. Common fluxes include lead, barium, lithium, calcium and sodium, and are used to lower the melting point of silica. The actual colorants, which are an assortment of metal oxides usually account for less than 5% of the glaze by weight.
Originally, soluble raw lead compounds including red lead, white lead, galena, and litharge were used as fluxes in low-fire glazes. In fact, over 400 cases of lead poisoning were reported in British potters in 1897. Lead frits and good housekeeping greatly lowered the number of potters that had been poisoned by these highly toxic lead compounds. Frits are made of melted minerals and metal compounds that are sintered and ground into powder form. While lead frits are sometimes assumed to be insoluble and nontoxic, leaching tests with acids have shown that many frits are as soluble as raw lead compounds and, in fact, there have been cases of lead poisoning from both inhalation or ingestion of these.
High fire porcelain and stoneware techniques eliminate the need for lead as a flux. Also, alkali earth or alkaline earth fluxes can be used for low-fire conditions instead of lead. Silica may also be removed from leadless type glazes. The substitution can be based on boric oxide as the glass-former, instead of silica. Alkali earth fluxes include sodium, potassium, and lithium oxides; alkaline earth fluxes include calcium, magnesium, barium, and strontium oxides. Minerals containing these fluxes include certain feldspars, nepheline syenite, petalite, bone and plant ashes, whiting, and dolomite.
An assortment of metal oxides or other metal compounds produce particular colors when fired. These are added in such small amounts to the glaze, that they aren't usually a great hazard. Luster or metallic glazes are fired in a reduction atmosphere. These glazes can contain mercury, arsenic, highly toxic solvents such as aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons, and oils such as lavender oil. The common metals are often resinates of gold, platinum, silver, and copper. Some underglazes and overglazes use mineral spirits as the vehicle instead of water.
Glaze components are weighed, sorted and mixed with water. These materials are often in fine powdered form, and result in high dust exposures. Glazes can be dipped, brushed, poured, or sprayed on the ceramic piece.
Electric kilns and fuel-fired kilns are used to heat the pottery to the desired firing temperature. The most common type are the electric kilns. Heating elements heat the kiln as electric current passes through the coils. The temperature rises until the kiln is shut off.
Fuel-fired kilns are heated by burning gas (natural or propane), oil, wood, coke, charcoal or other materials. Propane gas or natural gas is used most often. These kilns can be either located indoors or outdoors. The fuels produce carbon monoxide and other combustion gases. Fuel-fired kilns are usually vented from the top through a chimney.
Firing temperatures can vary from as low as 1382°F for raku and bisque wares, to as high as 2372 °F for stoneware, and 2642 °F for certain porcelains.
The early stages of bisque firing involves the oxidization of organic clay matter to carbon monoxide and other combustion gases. Sulfur breaks down later producing highly irritating sulfur oxides. Also, nitrates and nitrogen-containing organic matter break down to nitrogen oxides.
Galena, cornish stone, crude feldspars, low grade fire clays, fluorspar, gypsum, lepidolite and cryolite can release toxic gases and fumes during glaze firings. Carbonates, chlorides, and fluorides are broken down to releasing carbon dioxide, chlorine, and fluorine gases.
At or above stoneware firing temperature, lead, antimony, cadmium, selenium and precious metals vaporize and the metal fumes can either escape from the kiln, or settle inside the kiln or on ceramic ware in the kiln. Nitrogen oxides and ozone can be generated from oxygen and nitrogen in air.
While most glaze firings refer to firing a glaze-coated pot in the kiln, special processes sometimes are used. Salt glazing and raku firing are two examples.
This process involves throwing wet salt (sodium chloride) into the heated kiln while the bisque ware is being fired. Wet salt at high temperatures decomposed to sodium and chlorine. The sodium reacts with the bisque ware to form a glaze. Large amounts of hydrogen chloride gas and possibly chlorine are also formed.
Sodium carbonate (washing soda) can also be used. Carbon dioxide is generated instead of hydrogen chloride.
Raku involves first firing ware at a low temperature in a regular gas kiln, and then removing the still hot pieces and placing in them in sawdust, leaves or other organic materials for a reduction phase.
There is a real concern about lead leaching into food and drink from pottery fired with lead glazes. Both the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Canadian Consumer and Corporate Affairs have regulated how much lead can leach from foodware into food and drink. Acidic liquids are of particular concern. Similarly, continual microwave reheating, (e.g. a coffee mug at work) can yield greater leaching of lead glazes. Many cases of lead poisoning, and even some fatalities, have occurred from the leaching of lead from lead-glazed pottery.
While commercial ceramics companies routinely test their ware for lead leaching, craft potters do not have the same quality control as does the ceramics industry, and lead leaching is more of a problem.
According to United States regulation, ceramicware that does not pass the lead leaching tests must have a permanent fired decal stating:
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"NOT FOR FOOD USE - MAY POISON FOOD. FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES ONLY." |
As mentioned earlier, you can also drill a hole in the pottery so it cannot be used for liquids or food.
Preferably, do not use lead glazes, especially for food and drink vessels. Any foodware finished with lead glazes should be tested regularly by certified laboratories.
Other metals can leach into food and drink. Cadmium is the single metal besides lead presently regulated in the United States and Canada. However, other possible toxic metals in glazes can leach. Barium has been seen in some tests to leach in hazardous amounts from certain glaze formulations. If a barium glaze, or other glaze, changes color from contact with food, do not use the vessel for food. Try and use only glazes with calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium fluxes and minimize the amounts of toxic metal colorants. Routine testing for other metal leaching should be done. More research needs to be done in this area.
Intaglio, lithography and relief inks consist of pigments suspended in either linseed oil or water as a vehicle. There can be additional hazardous binders or preservatives, etc.
Oil-based inks contain treated linseed oils. While linseed oil is not considered a hazard by skin contact or inhalation, ingestion of large amounts of some treated linseed oils might be hazardous due to presence of small amounts of toxic heavy metals. Oil vehicles are flammable when heated, and rags soaked in these may ignite by spontaneous combustion.
Pigments are the colorants used in lithography, intaglio, and relief printing inks. There are two types of pigments: inorganic pigments, and organic pigments.
In general, organic solvents are one of the most underrated hazards in art materials. Organic solvents are used in printmaking to dissolve and mix with oils, resins, varnishes, and inks, and to clean plates, rollers, tools, and even hands.
Acids are used in intaglio (acid etching) and in lithography. Strong acids commonly used include nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, and phosphoric acid, and less commonly carbolic acid (phenol), chromic acid, hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids.
Lithography uses either zinc and aluminum metal plates or stones for printing. It involves use of a variety of chemicals to make the image ink-receptive and non-image areas receptive to water and ink-repellent.
A variety of drawing materials with high wax and fatty acid content are used to make the image, including tusche and lithographic crayons. Airbrushing liquid drawing materials or using spray enamel or lacquer is also common. Other materials used in stone or plate processing include etch solution containing acids and gum arabic, counteretch solutions containing acids and sometimes dichromate salts, and fountain solutions containing dichromate salts. Phenol (carbolic acid) has been used for removing grease from stones, and a variety of solvents including lithotine, gasoline, kerosene, and mineral spirits, which are used for diluting drawing materials, washing out images and correction of images. Talc and rosin mixtures are also used. Metal plates are prepared with solvent-based vinyl lacquers.
For all types of lithographic inks, solvents are used to make image corrections on the press, to remove images, and to clean the press bed and rollers.
Some roller cleaners and glaze cleaners can contain chlorinated hydrocarbons such as perchloroethylene and methylene chloride. Most chlorinated solvents (except 1,1,1-trichloroethane) have been shown to cause liver cancer in animals and are therefore suspect human carcinogens. In addition perchloroethylene can cause liver damage, and methylene chloride heart attacks.
Intaglio is a printmaking process in which ink is pressed into depressed areas of the plate and then transferred to paper. These depressed areas can be produced by a variety of techniques, including acid etching, drypoint, engraving and mezzotint.
Etching involves use of dilute nitric acid, Dutch mordant (hydrochloric acid plus potassium chlorate) or ferric chloride to etch the zinc or copper (respectively) metal plate. Unetched parts the plate are protected with resists such as stopout varnishes containing ethyl alcohol, grounds containing asphaltum or gilsonite and mineral spirits, rubber cement, and rosin or spray paints for aquatinting. Sometimes, soft grounds contain more toxic solvents.
Drypoint, mezzotint and engraving use sharp tools to incise lines in metal plates.
Intaglio inks contain pigments, treated linseed oil and modifiers. Printing involves placing the ink on the inking slab, inking the plate by hand, and then printing. Cleanup of inking slab, press bed, and cleaning the plate is done with a variety of solvents including mineral spirits, alcohol, lithotine, turpentine, etc.
Other printing processes include relief printing, collagraphs, monoprints, and plastic prints.
Relief printing techniques include woodcuts, linoleum cuts and acrylic plates for plaster relief. These techniques involve the cutting away of plate areas that are not to be printed. Relief inks can be oil-based or water-based.
Collagraphs are prints produced by using a collage of different materials glued onto a rigid support. A wide variety of materials and adhesives can be used in making collagraphs.
Plastic prints can involve making prints from a wide variety of plastic materials and resins.
Plastic prints can involve hazards from inhalation of plastic resin vapors (e.g. epoxy resins) and also from inhalation of decomposition fumes from drilling, machining, sawing, etc. of finished plastics.
Monoprints involve standard intaglio, lithographic and other printmaking techniques, but only one print is made. Monoprints have the same hazards involved in plate preparation and printing as the parent techniques.
Photoprintmaking involves exposing a light-sensitive emulsion or film to ultraviolet light through a transparent support containing an opaque image to transfer the image to a plate. The transparency through which the photoemulsions are developed can include drawings on a transparent support such as Mylar or acetate, or photographic images processed on graphic arts film to yield a positive image. Several photoprintmaking methods will be discussed.
Photolithography involves transferring graphic images to stones or metal plates that are coated with a light-sensitive emulsion. One can coat the stone or metal plate, or use presensitized metal plates. Light-sensitive emulsions used on stone consist of a mixture of powdered albumin, ammonium dichromate, water, and ammonia; commercial emulsions are usually based on diazo compounds. Developing solutions for these mixtures often contain highly toxic solvents. Diazo-sensitizing solutions, developers with highly toxic solvents, plate conditioners containing strong alkali, and other brand name mixtures are used for metal plates.
Photoetching is usually done using the KPR products. Photoresist dyes often contain a variety of highly toxic solvents, including ethylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate (2-ethoxyethyl acetate, cellosolve acetate), ethylene glycol monoethyl ether, and xylene, and benzaldehyde. The developers contain xylene and ethylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate (2-methoxyethyl acetate or methyl cellosolve acetate). Developers used for safer presensitized plates also also contain solvents. Exposure of the plate is done with ultraviolet sources such as carbon arcs, mercury lamps, or metal halide lamps.
A wide variety of chemicals are used in black and white photographic processing. Film developing is usually done in closed canisters. Print processing uses tray processing, with successive developing baths, stop baths, fixing baths, and rinse steps. Other treatments include use of hardeners, intensifiers, reducers, toners, and hypo eliminators.
Photochemicals can be bought in liquid form, which only need diluting, or powder form, which need dissolving and diluting.
The most commonly used developers are hydroquinone, monomethyl para-amino phenol sulfate, and phenidone. Several other developers are used for special purposes. Other common components of developing baths include an accelerator, often sodium carbonate or borax, sodium sulfite as a preservative, and potassium bromide as a restrainer or antifogging agent.
Stop baths are usually weak solutions of acetic acid. Acetic acid is commonly available as pure glacial acetic acid or 28% acetic acid. Some stop baths contain potassium chrome alum as a hardener.
Fixing baths contain sodium thiosulfate ("hypo") as the fixing agent, and sodium sulfite and sodium bisulfite as a preservative. Fixing baths also may also contain alum (potassium aluminum sulfate) as a hardener and boric acid as a buffer.
A common after-treatment of negatives (and occasionally prints) is either intensification or reduction. Common intensifiers include hydrochloric acid and potassium dichromate, or potassium chlorochromate. Mercuric chloride followed by ammonia or sodium sulfite, Monckhoven's intensifier consisting of a mercuric salt bleach followed by a silver nitrate/potassium cyanide solution, mercuric iodide/sodium sulfite, and uranium nitrate are older, now discarded, intensifiers.
Reduction of negatives is usually done with Farmer's reducer, consisting of potassium ferricyanide and hypo. Reduction has also be done historically with iodine/potassium cyanide, ammonium persulfate, and potassium permanganate/sulfuric acid.
Toning a print usually involves replacement of silver by another metal, for example, gold, selenium, uranium, platinum, or iron. In some cases, the toning involves replacement of silver metal by brown silver sulfide, for example, in the various types of sulfide toners. A variety of other chemicals are also used in the toning solutions.
Many other chemicals are also used in black and white processing, including formaldehyde as a pre-hardener, a variety of oxidizing agents as hypo eliminators (e.g., hydrogen peroxide and ammonia, potassium permanganate, bleaches, and potassium persulfate), sodium sulfide to test for residual silver, silver nitrate to test for residual hypo, solvents such as methyl chloroform and freons for film and print cleaning, and concentrated acids to clean trays.
Electrical outlets and equipment can present electrical hazards in darkrooms due to the risk of splashing water.
Color processing is much more complicated than black and white processing, and there is a wide variation in processes used by different companies. Color processing can be either done in trays or in automatic processors.
The first developer of color transparency processing usually contains monomethyl-p-aminophenol sulfate, hydroquinone, and other normal black and white developer components. Color developers contain a wide variety of chemicals including color coupling agents, penetrating solvents (such as benzyl alcohol, ethylene glycol, and ethoxydiglycol), amines, and others.
Many of the chemicals used in other steps of color processing are essentially the same as those used for black and white processing. Examples include the stop bath and fixing bath. Bleaching uses a number of chemicals, including potassium ferricyanide, potassium bromide, ammonium thiocyanate, and acids. Chemicals found in prehardeners and stabilizers include succinaldehyde and formaldehyde; neutralizers can contain hydroxylamine sulfate, acetic acid, and other acids.
There is considerable concern about the effect of dumping photographic chemicals and solutions down the drain. The following recommendations are for disposing small volumes of photographic solutions daily.
Many artists work with traditional sculptural materials including plaster, stone, lapidary, clay, wax, and modeling materials. See Ceramics for information on some other sculpting media.
Plaster can be carved, modeled, and casted. Varieties of plaster include: Plaster of Paris, casting plaster, white art plaster, molding plaster, and Hydrocal. These are all varieties of calcined gypsum, composed of calcium sulfate. Mold releases used with plaster include vaseline, tincture of green soap, auto paste wax-benzene, silicone-grease- benzine, and mineral oil-petroleum jelly. In waste molding, the plaster mold is chipped away.
Stone carving involves chipping, scraping, fracturing, flaking, crushing, and pulverizing with a wide variety of tools. Soft stones can be worked with manual tools whereas hard stones require crushing and pulverizing with electric and pneumatic tools. Crushed stone can also be used in casting procedures.
Soft stones include soapstone (steatite), serpentine, sandstone, African wonderstone, greenstone, sandstone, limestone, alabaster, and several others. Hard stones include granite and marble. Electric tools include saws, drills, grinders, and sanders, and pneumatic tools include rotohammers, drills, and other tools powered by compressed air. Stone casts can be made using Portland cement, sand, and crushed stone. Marble dust is often used with this technique. Cast concrete sculptures can also be made using sand and Portland cement. Lapidary involves cutting and carving semiprecious stones and has similar risks as hard stone carving. Stones carved include garnet, jasper, jade, agate, travertine, opal, turquoise and many others.
Stones can be finished by grinding, sanding, and polishing, by either hand or with machines. Polishing can use a variety of materials, depending on the hardness of the stone being polished. Polishing materials include carborundum (silicon carbide), corundum (alumina), diamond dust, pumice, putty powder (tin oxide), rouge (iron oxide), tripoli (silica), and cerium oxide.
See Ceramics for information about clay compounds. Modeling clays of the plasticine type usually contain China clay in an oil and petrolatum base. Additives are often present, including dyes, sulfur dioxide, vegetable oils, aluminum silicate, preservatives, and turpentine. These are modeled and carved with simple tools. There are also a variety of polymer clays that are self- hardening, or oven-hardening (e.g. FIMO, Sculpey), which are not really clays at all. These are often based on polyvinyl chloride.
Many different types of waxes are used for modeling, carving, and casting. These include beeswax, ceresin, carnauba, tallow, paraffin, and micro-crystalline wax. In addition there are the synthetic chlorinated waxes. Solvents used to dissolve various waxes include alcohol, acetone, benzine, turpentine, ether, and carbon tetrachloride. Waxes are often softened for carving or modeling by heating in a double boiler or with a light bulb, by sculpting with tools warmed over an alcohol lamp, or by the use of soldering irons, alcohol lamps, and blowpipes. Wax can be melted for casting in a double boiler. Additives used with waxes include rosin, dyes, petroleum jelly, mineral oil, and many solvents.
Wood sculpture uses a large number of different types of hard and soft woods, including many exotic tropical woods. Many of these woods are hazardous themselves. Sometimes woods are treated with hazardous preservatives or pesticides.
Plywood is made by gluing thin sheets of wood together with either urea-formaldehyde glues (for indoor use) or phenol-formaldehyde glues (for outdoor use). Composition board, for example particle board, is made by gluing wood dust, chips, etc. together with urea-formaldehyde resins. The materials can emit unreacted formaldehyde for some years after manufacture, with composition board emitting more formaldehyde. In addition, heating these materials or machining them can cause decomposition of the glue to release formaldehyde.
Pesticides and preservatives are often applied to wood when it is being timbered, processed or shipped. Unfortunately, it is hard to find out what chemicals, if any, have been added. This is especially a problem with imported woods, since pesticides and wood preservatives banned in the United States and Canada are often used in other countries. Pentachlorophenol and its salts, creosote, and chromated copper arsenate (CCA) have been banned for sale in the United Sates as wood preservatives because of their extreme hazards. They can, however, still be found in older woods and chromated copper arsenate is still allowed as a commercial treatment (e.g. "green" lumber, playground equipment, and other outdoor uses). It is supposed to be labeled. A variety of other chemicals can be used in treating wood including fire retardants, bleaches, etc.
Woods can be hand carved with chisels, rasps, files, hand saws, sandpaper, and the like, or they can be machined with electric saws, sanders, drills, lathes and other woodworking machines.
A variety of glues are used for laminating and joining wood. These include contact adhesives, casein glue, epoxy glues, formaldehyde-resin glues (e.g., formaldehyde-resorcinol), hide glues, and white glue (polyvinyl acetate emulsion), and the cyanoacrylate "instant" glues.
There are several types of wastes that can be generated in Visual Arts. Some examples include:
Many of these wastes are considered hazardous by the US Environmental Protection Agency and require special handling. These materials may not be poured down the drain.
Oily rags must be placed in a red oily rag can such as the one pictured here. The rags are emptied out each night by the custodial staff. Do not leave oily rags lying around the floor. Linseed oil, in particular, can ignite on its own if left out, causing fire that may spread to other areas. The oily rag can is self-closing to prevent such an occurrence.
Solvents, such as paint thinner, turpentine, toluene, xylene, and alcohols are considered hazardous waste. DO NOT DUMP them down the drain. Follow the instructions for handling hazardous waste.
Oil-based paints are considered hazardous waste. DO NOT DUMP oil-based paint down the drain or place in regular trash. Oil-based paints may be combined with solvents and linseed oil for disposal. Follow the instructions for handling hazardous wastes. Latex paints should be dried out and placed in regular trash. Water-based paints may be disposed via the regular trash.
Baby oil is not considered hazardous waste. Baby oil can be used to clean brushes and can be washed down the drain. Excess baby oil can be disposed in the regular trash.
Because of its potential for fire, linseed oil should be handled as a hazardous waste, in a similar manner as solvents. Linseed oil can be combined with oil-based paints and solvents for disposal. Follow the instructions for handling hazardous waste.
Many ceramic glazes contain metals that are considered hazardous waste. Unused portions of the glazes should be disposed as hazardous waste. Glaze preparation and rinsing should be conducted in the sink specified for this purpose. This sink is equipped with a settling tank to prevent the solids from entering the drain.
At least monthly, the settling tank must be opened and emptied. The collected material must be handled as hazardous waste. See the instructions for handling hazardous waste.
Photographic chemicals generally fit into four categories: fixers, developers, rinses, and specialized chemicals. Standard developers and rinses can be rinsed down the drain during processing. Most fixers contain silver in quantities above the amount allowed for sewer disposal. Fixer wastes must be collected and either poured through the silver recovery unit on the first floor photo area or collected as hazardous waste. Specialized chemicals, such as special acids and bases, should be assumed to be hazardous waste and collected accordingly.
Materials with a pH of less than 2 or more than 12.5 are considered hazardous waste. Do not mix these wastes with the solvent or oil wastes. Use care when handling acids and bases and follow the instructions for handling hazardous waste.
Oils such as pump oil, motor oil and other machine oils are recyclable. These materials should be placed in a plastic container, sealed and labeled as Used Oil. Do not label them as hazardous waste or as waste oil. The used oil should be disposed via the weekly waste pickup.
Sharp objects, such as razor blades, knives, and broken glass should be packaged in a puncture-proof jar or box and placed in the regular trash. Pre-packaging helps to avoid injury to janitors or others handling the trash.
Empty chemical containers should be triple-rinsed and recycled or placed in regular trash.
Materials that are to be disposed of as hazardous must be placed in sealable containers. Containers should be filled, leaving a headspace for expansion of the contents. Often the original container is perfectly acceptable. If you routinely generate significant quantities of compatible solvents, bulking of waste in five-gallon carboys provided by EHS may be practical.
Similar wastes may be mixed if they are compatible (e.g solvents, linseed oil and oil-based paint).
Containers must be kept closed except during actual transfers. Do not leave a hazardous waste container with a funnel in it.
Waste containers must be labeled as hazardous waste as soon as the material is first put into the container. Waste container labels are available on each flammable liquid storage cabinet and through the sculpture shop. Be sure to include the name and phone number of a person that can be reached on the day of the waste pickup.
Collection takes place Thursdays, excluding University holidays and closings.
For more information, see Chemical Waste Disposal.